Planning
the migration from Microsoft's internal "legacy XENIX-based messaging system" to the
Exchange Server environment began in April 1993,[2] and the process
was completed in the late 1996 when the last XENIX server on the MS corporate
backbone had been removed.[3]
Microsoft
began a preliminary planning of the Exchange 4.0 migration in April 1993.[3] In January 1995,
500 users were running on Exchange Beta 1, 5,000+ users running on Exchange
Beta 2a in September 1995, and finally all 32,000 Microsoft mailboxes
successfully migrated to Exchange and Microsoft Exchange shipped in April 1996.
Microsoft IT Group[2] actually migrated all Microsoft
employees to the Exchange platform
before the product had the official Release status.
It
was the original version of Exchange Server sold to the public, positioned as
an upgrade to Microsoft Mail 3.5. The original version of Microsoft Mail (written by
Microsoft) had been replaced, several weeks after Lotus acquired cc:Mail, by a package
called Network Courier, acquired during the purchase of Consumer
Software Inc. in April 1991.[4]Exchange Server was
however an entirely new X.400-based client–server mail system with
a single database store that also supported X.500 directory services. The directory
used by Exchange Server eventually became Microsoft's Active Directory service, an LDAP-compliant directory server. Active Directory was integrated
into Windows
2000 as
the foundation of Windows Server domains.
Introduced
the new Exchange Administrator console, as well as opening up
"integrated" access to SMTP-based networks for the first time.
Unlike Microsoft Mail (which required a standalone SMTP relay), Exchange Server
5.0 could, with the help of an add-in called the Internet Mail Connector,
communicate directly with servers using SMTP. Version 5.0 also introduced a
new Web-based e-mail interface called Exchange Web Access,
which was rebranded as Outlook Web Access in a later Service pack. Along with Exchange
Server version 5.0, Microsoft released version 8.01 of Microsoft Outlook, version 5.0 of
the Microsoft Exchange Client and version 7.5 of Microsoft Schedule+ to support the new features in the new
version of Exchange Server.
Exchange
Server 5.0 introduced a number of other new features including a new version of
Outlook Web Access with Calendar support, support for IMAP4 and LDAP v3 clients and the Deleted Item Recovery
feature.
The
last version of Exchange Server to have separate directory, SMTP and NNTP
services. There was no new version of Exchange Client and Schedule+ for version
5.5, instead version 8.03 of Microsoft Outlook was released to support the new
features of Exchange Server 5.5.
Was
sold in two editions: Standard and Enterprise. They differ in database store
size, mail transport connectors and clustering capabilities.
Standard Edition
Had
the same 16GB database size limitation as earlier versions of Exchange Server.
Included the Site Connector, MS Mail Connector, Internet Mail Service
(previously "Internet Mail Connector"), and Internet News Service
(previously "Internet News Connector"), as well as software to
interoperate with cc:Mail, Lotus Notes and Novell GroupWise.
Enterprise Edition
Had
an increased limit of 16TB (although Microsoft's best practices documentation
recommends that the message store not exceed 100GB). Adds an X.400 connector, and interoperability
software with SNADS and PROFS. Introduced two node clustering capability.
Codenamed
"Platinum" this version overcame many of the limitations of its
predecessors. For example, it raised the maximum sizes of databases and
increased the number of servers in a cluster from two to four. However, many
customers were deterred from upgrading by the requirement for a full Microsoft
Active Directory infrastructure to be in place, as unlike Exchange Server 5.5,
Exchange 2000 Server had no built-in Directory Service, and had a dependency
upon Active Directory. The migration process from Exchange Server 5.5
necessitated having the two systems online at the same time, with
user-to-mailbox mapping and a temporary translation process between the two
directories. Exchange 2000 Server also added support for instant messaging, but that capability
was later spun off to Microsoft Office Live Communications
Server.
Codenamed
"Titanium", this version can be run on Windows 2000 Server (only if Service Pack 4 is first
installed) and 32-bit Windows Server 2003, although some new features only work with the
latter. Like Windows Server 2003, Exchange Server 2003 has many compatibility
modes to allow users to slowly migrate to the new system. This is useful in
large companies with distributed Exchange Server environments who cannot afford
the downtime and expense that comes with a complete migration.
It
made the migration from pre-2000 versions of Exchange significantly easier
(although still involved the same basic steps), and many users of Exchange
Server 5.5 waited for the release of Exchange Server 2003 to upgrade. The
upgrade process also required upgrading a company's servers to Windows 2000.
Some customers opted to stay on a combination of Exchange Server 5.5 and Windows NT 4.0, both of which are no
longer supported by Microsoft.
One
of the new features in Exchange Server 2003 is enhanced disaster recovery[5] which allows administrators to
bring the server online more quickly. This is done by allowing the server to
send and receive mail while the message stores are being recovered from backup.
Some features previously available in the Microsoft Mobile Information Server2001/2002 products have
been added to the core Exchange Server product, like Outlook Mobile Access and
server-side Exchange ActiveSync, while the Mobile Information Server product
itself has been dropped. Better anti-virus and anti-spam protection have also
been added, both by providing built-in APIs that facilitate filtering software
and built-in support for the basic methods of originating IP address, SPF ("Sender ID"), and DNSBL filtering which were standard on
other open source and *nix-based mail servers.
Also new is the ability to drop inbound e-mail before being fully processed,
thus preventing delays in the message routing system. There are also improved
message and mailbox management tools, which allow administrators to execute
common chores more quickly. Others, such as Instant Messaging and Exchange
Conferencing Server have been extracted completely in order to form separate
products. Microsoft now appears to be positioning a combination of Microsoft Office, Microsoft Office Live Communications
Server,Live Meeting and Sharepoint as its collaboration software
of choice. Exchange Server is now to be simply e-mail and calendaring.
Exchange
Server 2003 added several basic filtering methods to Exchange Server. They are
not sophisticated enough to eliminate spam, but they can protect against DoS
and mailbox flooding attacks. Exchange Server 2000 supported the ability to block
a sender's address, or e-mail domain by adding '*@domain.com', which is still
supported in Exchange Server 2003.
Added
filtering methods in Exchange Server 2003 are:
Connection filtering
Recipient filtering
Messages
blocked when sent to manually specified recipients on the server (for intranet-only
addresses) or to any recipients not on the server (stopping spammers from
guessing addresses)
Sender ID filtering
Intelligent Message Filter
Initially
a free Microsoft add-on, later, part of service pack 2, that uses heuristic
message analysis to block messages or direct them to the "Junk
E-Mail" folder in Microsoft Outlook clients.[7]
Standard Edition
Supports
up to two storage groups (with one of the storage groups, called the recovery
storage group, being reserved for database recovery operations) and a maximum
of 2 databases per storage group.
Each
database is limited to a maximum size of 16GB.
Beginning
with the release of Service Pack 2, a maximum
database size of 75GB, but only supports 16GB by default; larger sized
databases have to be updated-in with aregistry change.[8]
Enterprise Edition
Allows
a 16TB maximum database size, and supports up to 4 storage groups with 5
databases per storage group for a total of 20 databases per server.
Exchange
2003 mainstream support ended on April 14, 2009.[9] Extended support
ended on April 8, 2014. [10]
Released
to business customers as part of Microsoft's roll-out wave of new products. It
includes new clustering options, x64 support for greater scalability, voice
mail integration, better search and support for Web services, better filtering
options, and a new Outlook Web Access interface. Exchange 2007 also dropped support
for Exchange 5.5 migrations, routing groups, admin groups, Outlook Mobile
Access, X.400, and some API interfaces, amongst other features.[11]
Exchange
Server 2007 (v8, code name E12, or with SP1 v8.1) runs only on x64 versions of Windows Server. This
requirement applies to supported production environments only; a 32-bit trial
version is available for download and testing. Hence, companies currently
running Exchange Server on 32-bit hardware will be required to replace or
migrate hardware if they wish to upgrade to the new version. Companies that are
currently running Exchange Server on 64-bit capable hardware are still required
to migrate from their existing Exchange 2000/2003 servers to a new 2007 server
since in-place upgrades are not supported in 2007.
The
first beta of Exchange Server 2007 (then named "Exchange 12" or E12)
was released in December 2005 to a very limited number of beta testers. A wider
beta was made available via TechNet Plus and MSDN subscriptions in March 2006
according to the Microsoft Exchange team blog.[12] On April 25,
2006, Microsoft announced that the next version of Exchange Server would be
called "Exchange Server 2007".
Protection
Anti-spam,
antivirus, compliance, clustering with data replication, improved security and
encryption
Improved Information Worker Access
Improved
calendaring, unified messaging, improved mobility, improved web access
Improved IT Experience
64-bit
performance & scalability, command-line shell & simplified GUI,
improved deployment, role separation, simplified routing
Exchange Management Shell
a
new command-line shell and scripting language for system administration (based on Windows PowerShell). Shell users can perform every task that can
be performed in the Exchange Server graphical user interface plus additional
tasks, and can program often-used or complex tasks into scripts that can be
saved, shared, and re-used. The Exchange Management Shell has over 375 unique
commands to manage features of Microsoft Exchange Server 2007.[14]
"Unified Messaging"
Lets
users receive voice mail, e-mail, and faxes in their mailboxes, and lets them
access their mailboxes from cell phones and other wireless devices. Voice
commands can be given to control and listen to e-mail over the phone (and also
send some basic messages, like "I'll be late")
Increased database maximum size limit
Database
size is now limited to 16TB per database[15]
Increased maximum storage groups and mail databases per server
5
each for Standard Edition (from 1 each in Exchange Server 2003 Standard), and
to 50 each for Enterprise Edition (from 4 groups and 20 databases in Exchange
Server 2003 Enterprise).
Configure Outlook Anywhere
Formerly
known as RPC over HTTP provides external access to
Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 for users. If you want Microsoft Office Outlook
2007 user profiles to be automatically configured to connect to Exchange 2007,
configure the Autodiscover service. This also provides external URLs for
Exchange services such as the Availability service and offline address book.
Standard edition
Can
have 5 databases in up to 5 storage groups. Supports LCR (Local Continuous
Replication) and SCR (Standby Continuous Replication).
Enterprise edition
This
is extended to 50 databases in up to 50 storage groups. Supports LCR (Local
Continuous Replication), SCR (Standby Continuous Replication), SCC (Single Copy
Clustering), and CCR (Clustered Continuous Replication).
Microsoft
reached the Release to manufacturing (RTM) milestone for Exchange Server 2010
on May, 2009, and it was officially launched on November 9, 2009.[16]
DAG (Database Availability Groups)
SCC,
CCR, LCR and site resiliency functionality SCR have been replaced by DAG.
Provides
database level high availability (as opposed to server level) and supports a
number of copies of each database (number based on Exchange Edition) and
flexible configuration (databases copies may be added / removed at will without
requiring major server reconfiguration).
Client Access Server (CAS)
High
availability for the Client Access Server role is provided by using Client
Access Server (CAS) arrays. A CAS array can contain multiple Client Access
Servers in an Active Directory site and provide a single name endpoint for
client connections. CAS arrays cannot span multiple Active Directory sites.
Mailbox Server Role may be combined with the Client Access
Server
In
Exchange Server 2007, a clustered mailbox server could not be combined with any
other roles. In Exchange Server 2010, the Mailbox Server Role may be combined
with the Client Access Server and/or Hub Transport roles, regardless of whether
or not the mailbox server participates in a Database Availability Group.
However, since Database Availability Groups use Windows Failover Clustering,
and Microsoft does not support the combination of Windows Failover Clustering
and Windows Network Load Balancing on the same server, a multi-role deployment
will require the use of a 3rd party load balancer to provide load balancing and
fault tolerance for the Client Access Server role.
RPC Client Access
With
the introduction of the RPC Client Access service, all Outlook clients access
their mailbox database through the Client Access Server role. This abstraction
layer allows for improved load balancing and redundancy and minimal client
impact in the event of a database level *-over ("switchover" or
"failover") event.
Cost savings in required hardware
Exchange
Server 2010 provides cost savings in required hardware. Storage performance
requirements (measured in IOPS: Input/Output operations Per Second) have been
reduced by approximately 70% over Exchange Server 2007, and by approximately
90% over Exchange Server 2003. According to a case study, Microsoft IT was able
to reduce hardware costs by 75% during the migration from Exchange Server 2007
to Exchange Server 2010.
Personal Archive
Exchange
Server 2010 extends the large mailbox support introduced in Exchange Server
2007, and also introduces a Personal Archive feature to allow messages to be
retained longer without the need for a 3rd party archival system. The Personal
Archive is implemented as a secondary mailbox for archive-enabled users, and in
Exchange Server 2010 Service Pack 1, the Personal Archive may be located on a
different database than the primary mailbox, which may reside on a different
disk if desired. Backup can be performed via multiple solutions like Handy
Backup or Acronis.
Recoverable Items
The
compliance and legal search features have been enhanced. What was formerly
known as the "Dumpster" in previous versions of Exchange (a special
storage area for messages which have been deleted from the Deleted Items folder
or "permanently deleted" from a regular folder, such as the Inbox)
has been evolved into the Recoverable Items folder in Exchange Server 2010. If
configured appropriately, the Recoverable Items folder allows for a
"tamper proof" storage area (users cannot circumvent the Recoverable
Items folder to bypass legal discovery), which also provides a revision history
of any modified items.
Administration delegation
Can
now be performed at a granular level due to Exchange Server 2010's
implementation of Role Based Access Control (RBAC). Users and administrators
can be given extremely fine grained abilities for functions provided both
within the Exchange Management Console or Exchange Management Shell and in
Outlook Web App. For example, a compliance officer may be given the ability to perform
cross mailbox discovery searches within Outlook Web App; a help desk technician
may be granted the ability to set an Out Of Office message for other employees
within the company, or a branch administrator in a remote office may be granted
the permission to perform specific Exchange Management Shell commands that
pertain only to the Exchange server in their branch office.
Outlook Web App includes improvements
Including,
for example, the ability for users to track their sent messages and printable
calendar views and the "Premium" experience is now available across
multiple browsers (including Safari and Firefox).
Distribution groups can now be "moderated"
Meaning
that distribution groups can now be configured to allow users to join at will
or only with a group moderator's permission, and individual messages sent to
distribution groups can now be approved or denied by a moderator.
"Shadow Redundancy"
Exchange
Server 2010 introduces a transport concept called "Shadow Redundancy"
which protects e-mail messages while they are in transit. If a Hub Transport
server or an Edge Transport server fails after it has received a message for
processing, but before it was able to deliver it to the next "hop"
server, the server which sent the message to that transport server is now able
to detect the failure and redeliver the message to a different Hub Transport or
Edge Transport server for processing...
Several
high-availability options have been consolidated into just one option for
Exchange Server 2010 (Mailbox Resiliency), which is now offered in both the
Standard and Enterprise editions. The capabilities of Local Continuous
Replication, Standby Continuous Replication, and Cluster Continuous Replication
are now unified into the Exchange 2010 Mailbox Resiliency capability. These
capabilities enable a simplified approach to high availability and disaster
recovery.
Standard Edition
Supports
up to 5 databases.
Each
database is limited to a maximum size of 16 TB.
Enterprise Edition
This
is extended to 100 databases.
Storage
group is no more in Exchange 2010 and onwards.
In
January 2011, Microsoft Exchange Server 2010 won InfoWorld's 2011 Technology of
the Year Award for Best Mail Server.
Microsoft
reached the RTM milestone for Exchange Server 2013 on October 11, 2012.[17] A trial version of this product
is available from Microsoft website.[18]
Offline support in OWA
Emails
and actions are automatically synced the next time connectivity is restored.
Site Mailboxes
Brings
Exchange emails and SharePoint documents together.
Outlook Web App
Offers
three different UI layouts optimized for desktop, slate, and phone browsers.
Ability to customize
Outlook
and OWA by integrating apps from the Office marketplace. (Yes, this is a
reference to the Agaves add-ins that Microsoft and partners will be making
available via the new Office Store.) The new "Napa" tools and/or
HTML5 are Microsoft's preferred ways to developers to build these.
Exchange Administrative Center (EAC)
Replacement
of the Exchange Management Console by a Web-based Exchange Administrative
Center (EAC).
Support for up to 8TB disks
And
multiple databases per disk via Data Availability Group (DAG) management.
Built in basic anti-malware protection
Ability
for administrators to configure and manage settings from inside EAC. (Note:
this feature can be turned off, replaced or "paired with premium services
such as Exchange Online Protection for layered protection.").
New Data Loss Prevention (DLP)
Capabilities
for identifying and protecting "sensitive data." DLP policies are
based on regulatory standards, including PII and PCI. Also: new policy tips in
Outlook 2013 can be set to inform users about potential policy violations.
In-Place eDiscovery
Can
be run across Exchange, SharePoint, and Lync from a single interface.
Combine Roles
A
reduction in the number of available roles to two: a Client Access Server and a
Mailbox Server role.
FAST Search
Now
integrated into Exchange 2013 managed store to provide a more consistent
(across Microsoft servers) indexing and searching experience.
Inclusion of a "Managed Store"
The
name of the rewritten information store processes, which are now written in C#.
Replication
Public
folders are now stored in mailbox databases and can take advantage of Database
Availability Groups for replication and high availability.
Data loss prevention
Capabilities
that can be integrated into Transport Rules.
Exchange
Server Enterprise Edition supports clustering of up to 4 nodes when using Windows
2000 Server, and up to 8 nodes with Windows Server 2003. Exchange Server 2003
also introduced active-active clustering, but for two-node clusters only. In
this setup, both servers in the cluster are allowed to be active
simultaneously. This is opposed to Exchange's more common active-passive mode
in which the failover servers in any cluster node cannot be used at all while
their corresponding home servers are active. They must wait, inactive, for the
home servers in the node to fail. Subsequent performance issues with
active-active mode have led Microsoft to recommend that it should no longer be
used.[22] In fact, support
for active-active mode clustering has been discontinued with Exchange Server
2007.
Exchange's
clustering (active-active or active-passive mode) has been criticized because
of its requirement for servers in the cluster nodes to share the same physical
data. The clustering in Exchange Server provides redundancy for Exchange Server
as an application, but not for Exchange data.[23] In this scenario,
the data can be regarded as a single point of failure, despite Microsoft's description of this set
up as a "Shared Nothing" model.[24] This void has
however been filled by ISV's and storage manufacturers, through "site
resilience" solutions, such as geo-clustering and asynchronous data
replication.[25] Exchange Server
2007 introduces new cluster terminology and configurations that address the
shortcomings of the previous "shared data model".[26]
Exchange
Server 2007 provides built-in support for asynchronous replication modeled on
SQL Server's "Log
shipping"[27] in CCR (Cluster
Continuous Replication) clusters, which are built on MSCS MNS (Microsoft
Cluster Service—Majority Node Set) clusters, which do not require shared storage.
This type of cluster can be inexpensive and deployed in one, or
"stretched" across two datacenters for protection against site-wide
failures such as natural disasters. The limitation of CCR clusters is the
ability to have only two nodes and the third node known as "voter
node" or file share witness that prevents "split brain"[28] scenarios,
generally hosted as a file share on a Hub Transport Server. The second type of
cluster is the traditional clustering that was available in previous versions,
and is now being referred to as SCC (Single Copy Cluster). In Exchange Server
2007 deployment of both CCR and SCC clusters has been simplified and improved;
the entire cluster install process takes place during Exchange Server
installation. LCR or Local Continuous Replication has been referred to as the
"poor man's cluster". It is designed to allow for data replication to
an alternative drive attached to the same system and is intended to provide
protection against local storage failures. It does not protect against the case
where the server itself fails.
In
November 2007, Microsoft released SP1 for Exchange Server 2007. This service
pack includes an additional high-availability feature called SCR (Standby
Continuous Replication). Unlike CCR which requires that both servers belong to
a Windows cluster, typically residing in the same datacenter, SCR can replicate
data to a non-clustered server, located in a separate datacenter.
With
Exchange Server 2010, Microsoft introduced the concept of the Database
Availability Group (DAG). A DAG contains Mailbox servers that become members of
the DAG. Once a Mailbox server is a member of a DAG, the Mailbox Databases on
that server can be copied to other members of the DAG. When you add a Mailbox
server to a DAG, the Failover Clustering Windows role is installed on the
server and all required clustering resources are created.
Like
Windows Server products, Exchange Server requires client access licenses, which are different from Windows CALs.
Corporate license agreements, such as the Enterprise Agreement, or EA, include
Exchange Server CALs. It also comes as part of the Core CAL. Just like Windows
Server and other server products from Microsoft, you can choose to use User or
Device CALs. Device CALs are assigned to a device (workstation, laptop or PDA).[29] User CALs, are
assigned to a user or employee (not a mailbox). User CALs allow a user to
access Exchange e-mail from any device. User and Device CALs are the same
price, however cannot be used interchangeably. For Service Providers looking to
host Microsoft Exchange, there is an SPLA (Service Provider License Agreement)
available whereby Microsoft receives a monthly service fee in the place of the
traditional Client Access Licenses. Two types of Exchange CAL are available:
Exchange CAL Standard and Exchange CAL Enterprise. The Enterprise CAL is an
add-on license to the Standard CAL.
Microsoft
Exchange Server can also be purchased as a hosted service from a number of
providers.[30] Though Exchange
hosting has been around for more than 10 years, it is only recently that many
providers have been marketing the service as "Cloud Computing" or
Software-as-a-Service. Exchange hosting allows for Microsoft Exchange Server to
be running in the Internet, also referred to as the Cloud, and managed by a
"Hosted Exchange Server provider" instead of building and deploying
the system in-house.
Microsoft
Exchange Online is an email, calendar and contacts solution delivered as a
cloud service, hosted by Microsoft. It is essentially the
same service offered by hosted Exchange providers and it is built on the same
technologies as Microsoft Exchange Server. Exchange Online provides end users
with a familiar email experience across PCs, the Web and mobile devices, while
giving IT administrators or small businesses and professionals web-based tools
for managing their online deployment.[31]
Microsoft
Exchange is available both as on-premises software and as a hosted service with
Exchange Online. Customers can also choose to combine both on-premises and online
options in a hybrid deployment.
Exchange
Online was first provided as a hosted service in dedicated customer
environments in 2005 to select pilot customers.[32] Microsoft
launched a multi-tenant version of Exchange Online as part of the Business
Productivity Online Standard Suite in November 2008.[33] In June 2011, as
part of the commercial release of Microsoft Office 365, Exchange Online was updated with the
capabilities of Exchange Server 2010.
Exchange
Server 2010 was developed concurrently as a server product and for the Exchange
Online service.
Microsoft
Exchange Server uses a proprietary RPC protocol, MAPI/RPC,[34] that was designed
to be used by Microsoft Outlook. Clients capable of
using the proprietary features of Exchange Server include Evolution[35] and Microsoft
Outlook. Exchange Web Services (EWS), an alternative to the MAPI protocol, is a
documented SOAP based protocol
introduced with Exchange Server 2007 which significantly reduces
synchronization time between the server vs. WebDAV, which is used by Exchange Server 2003.
Exchange Web Services is used by the latest version of Microsoft Entourage for Mac and Microsoft Outlook for Mac.
Also, since the release of Mac OS X Snow Leopard, Mac computers running OS X include some
support for this technology via Apple's Mail application. Built-in support with
Mac OS X 10.6 requires the Exchange organization to be running Exchange Server
2007 SP1/SP2 or Exchange Server 2010.
E-mail
hosted on an Exchange Server can also be accessed using SMTP, POP3 and IMAP4 protocols, using clients such
as Windows Live Mail, Mozilla Thunderbird, and Lotus Notes. These protocols must
be enabled on the server. Exchange Server mailboxes can also be accessed
through a web browser, using Outlook Web App (OWA). Exchange
Server 2003 also featured a version of OWA for mobile devices, called Outlook Mobile
Access (OMA).
Support
for Exchange ActiveSync was added to Microsoft Exchange Server
2003. Exchange ActiveSync, in the context of Exchange Server, allows a
compliant device such as aWindows Mobile device to
securely synchronize mail, contacts and other data directly with an Exchange
server. Since its inception, ActiveSync has become a popular mobile access
standard for businesses due to cross-platform support from companies like Nokia and Apple Inc.[36] as well as its
advanced device security and compliance features.
Support
for Push
E-mail was
added to Exchange Server 2003 with Service Pack 2. Windows Mobile 5.0 requires
the "Messaging and Security Feature Pack (MSFP)", later versions of
the mobile operating system, such as Windows Phone 7, have the capability built
in.[37] Many other
devices now support ActiveSync push e-mail, such as the iPhone and Android Phones.[38] Exchange Server
2007 and Exchange Server 2010 support the use of Exchange ActiveSync Policies.
By using Exchange ActiveSync Policies, administrators can secure the devices
that connect to the organization or remotely deactivate features on the
devices. Administrators or users can also remotely wipe a lost mobile device.
Exchange
Server 2013 supports the use of Mobile Exchange ActiveSync Policies.[39]
